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Muscle Memory[edit]

Muscle memory, also known as motor memory is comprised of several mental processes that consolidate over time, making certain tasks automatically remembered in the long-term[1]. Through experience of the nervous system we form multiple long-term motor memories, for example learning how to ride a bike, or type on a keyboard[2]. Motor memory is shown through savings from performing a task many times; this is different from declarative memory which is shown through recalling a single item[3]. Most motor skills are acquired through practice, though it has been found that observations of movements can also lead to performance gains [4]


Fine Motor Skills Memory[edit]

Fine motor skills can also be discussed in terms of transitive movements, which are those done when using tools (which could be as simple as a tooth brush or pencil)[5]. Transitive movements have representations that become programmed to the premotor cortex, creating motor programs which result in the activation of the motor cortex and therefore the motor movements[6]. In a study testing the motor memory of patterned finger movements (a fine motor skill) it was found that retention of certain skills are susceptible to disruption if another task interferes with one’s motor memory[7]. However such susceptibility can be can be reduced with time. For example if finger a pattern is learned, then another is learned 6 hours later the original pattern will still be remembered, while learning such patterns back to back may cause forgetting of the initial one[8]. Furthermore, the heavy use of computers by recent generations has both positive and negative effects. It was found that one of the main positive effects is that it enhances fine motor skills of children [9]. Repeating behaviours (such as typing on a computer from a young age) can enhance such abilities; therefore by beginning computers use at an early age muscle memory will be activated earlier.

Music Memory[edit]

Fine motor skills are very important in playing musical instruments. It was found that muscle memory is relied on when playing the clarinet, specifically to help create special effects through certain tongue movements when blowing air into the instrument[10]. It is discussed that memorizing is done by muscles as a note is seen and recalled, its auditory pair is learned and is matched by fingers movements (a fine motor skill)[11]. When reproducing a motor action you must have previous experience with it to memorize set action. If there is no previous experience there will be no mental image of the motion, and therefore no actual movement[12].

Certain human behaviours, especially actions like the fingering in musical performances, are very complex and require many interconnected neural networks where information can be transmitted across multiple brain regions[13]. It has been found that there are often functional differences found in the brains of professional musicians compared to other individuals. This is thought to reflect the musician’s innate ability which may be fostered by an early exposure to musical training[14]. An example of this is bimanual synchronized finger movements which play an essential role in piano playing. It is suggested that bimanual coordination can only come from years of bimanual training, where such actions become adaptations of the motor areas[15]. When comparing professional musicians to a control group in complex bimanual movements, professionals are found to use an extensive motor network much less than those non-professionals[16]. This is because professionals rely on a motor system that has increased efficiency, and therefore those who are less trained have a network which is more strongly activated[17]. It is implied that the untrained pianists have to invest more neuronal activity to have the same level of performance that is achieved by professional[18]. This, yet again, is said to be a consequence of many years of motor training and experience which helps form a fine motor memory skill of musical performance.

It is often reported that when a pianist hears a well-trained piece of music it can involuntarily trigger synonymous fingering[19]. This implies there is a coupling between the perception of music and the motor activity of those musically trained individuals[20]. Therefore, one’s muscle memory in the context of music can easily be triggered when one hears certain familiar pieces. Overall, long-term musical fine motor training allows for complex actions to be performed at a lower level of movement control, monitoring, selection, attention, and timing[21]. This leaves room for musicians to focus attention synchronously elsewhere, such as on the artistic aspect of the performance, without having to consciously control one’s fine motor actions[22].

  1. ^ Krakauer, J.W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 58-64.
  2. ^ Krakauer, J.W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 58-64.
  3. ^ Krakauer, J.W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 58-64.
  4. ^ Stefan, K., Cohen, L. G., Duque, J., Mazzocchio, R., Celnik, P., Sawaki, L., Ungerleider, L., & Classen, J. (2005). Formation of a Motor Memory by Action Observation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 9339-9346.
  5. ^ Dowell, L. R., Mahone, E. M., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). Associations of postural knowledge and basic motor skill with dyspraxia in autism: Implication for abnormalities in distributed connectivity and motor learning. Neuropsychology, 23, 563-570.
  6. ^ Dowell, L. R., Mahone, E. M., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). Associations of postural knowledge and basic motor skill with dyspraxia in autism: Implication for abnormalities in distributed connectivity and motor learning. Neuropsychology, 23, 563-570.
  7. ^ Krakauer, J.W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 58-64.
  8. ^ Krakauer, J.W., & Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 58-64.
  9. ^ Straker, L., Pollock, C., & Maslen, B. (2009). Principles for the wise use of computers by children. Ergonomics [Ergonomics], 52, 1386-1401
  10. ^ Fritz, C., & Wolfe, J. (2005). How do clarinet players adjust the resonances of their vocal tracts for different playing effects? Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,118, 3306-3315.
  11. ^ Smith, T. L. (1896). On muscular memory. American Journal of Psychology, 7, 453-490.
  12. ^ Smith, T. L. (1896). On muscular memory. American Journal of Psychology, 7, 453-490.
  13. ^ Kim, D., Shin, M., Lee, K., Chu, K., Woo, S., Kim, Y., Song, E., Lee, Jun., Park, S., & Roh, J. (2004). Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur String Players. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 188-199.
  14. ^ Kim, D., Shin, M., Lee, K., Chu, K., Woo, S., Kim, Y., Song, E., Lee, Jun., Park, S., & Roh, J. (2004). Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur String Players. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 188-199.
  15. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
  16. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
  17. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
  18. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
  19. ^ Kim, D., Shin, M., Lee, K., Chu, K., Woo, S., Kim, Y., Song, E., Lee, Jun., Park, S., & Roh, J. (2004). Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur String Players. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 188-199.
  20. ^ Kim, D., Shin, M., Lee, K., Chu, K., Woo, S., Kim, Y., Song, E., Lee, Jun., Park, S., & Roh, J. (2004). Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur String Players. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 188-199
  21. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
  22. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
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